Global warming

 

Global warming is the rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth's mean surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980.^[2] Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90% certain that it is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.^[3][4][5][6] These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all major industrialized nations.^[7][A]

Climate model projections were summarized in the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). They indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 2.9 °C (2 to 5.2 °F) for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.4 to 6.4 °C (4.3 to 11.5 °F) for their highest.^[8] The ranges of these estimates arise from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations.^[9][10]

Future warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe.^[11] The effects of an increase in global temperature include a rise in sea levels and a change in the amount and pattern of precipitation, as well a probable expansion of subtropical deserts.^[12] Warming is expected to bestrongest in the Arctic and would be associated with the continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming include a more frequent occurrence of extreme-weather events including heat waves, droughts and heavy rainfall, ocean acidification and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and theloss of habitat from inundation.^[13][14]

Proposed policy responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, and possible future geoengineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),^[15] whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) climate change.^[16] Parties to the UNFCCC have adopted a range of policies designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions^{[17]:10[18][19][20]:9} and to assist in adaptation to global warming.^{[17]:13[20]:10[21][22]} Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required,^[23] and that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) relative to the pre-industrial level.^[23][B]Reports published in 2011 by the United Nations Environment Programme^[24] and the International Energy Agency^[25] suggest that efforts as of the early 21st century to reduce emissions may be inadequate to meet the UNFCCC's 2 °C target.

Observed temperature changes

The Earth's average surface temperature rose by 0.74±0.18 °C over the period 1906–2005. The rate of warming over the last half of that period was almost double that for the period as a whole (0.13±0.03 °C per decade, versus 0.07±0.02 °C per decade). The urban heat island effect is very small, estimated to account for less than 0.002 °C of warming per decade since 1900.^[27] Temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 0.13 and 0.22 °C (0.22 and 0.4 °F) per decade since 1979, according to satellite temperature measurements. Climate proxies show the temperature to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years before 1850, with regionally varying fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period and theLittle Ice Age.^[28]

The warming that is evident in the instrumental temperature record is consistent with a wide range of observations, as documented by many independent scientific groups.^[29] Examples include sea level rise (water expands as it warms),^[30] widespread melting of snow and ice,^[31] increasedheat content of the oceans,^[29] increased humidity,^[29] and the earlier timing of spring events,^[32] e.g., the flowering of plants.^[33] The probability that these changes could have occurred by chance is virtually zero.^[29]

Recent estimates by NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) and the National Climatic Data Center show that 2005 and 2010 tied for the planet's warmest year since reliable, widespread instrumental measurements became available in the late 19th century, exceeding 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree.^[34][35][36] Estimates by the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) show 2005 as the second warmest year, behind 1998 with 2003 and 2010 tied for third warmest year, however, "the error estimate for individual years ... is at least ten times larger than the differences between these three years."^[37] The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) statement on the status of the global climate in 2010 explains that, "The 2010 nominal value of +0.53 °C ranks just ahead of those of 2005 (+0.52 °C) and 1998 (+0.51 °C), although the differences between the three years are not statistically significant...

Temperatures in 1998 were unusually warm because global temperatures are affected by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and the strongest El Niño in the past century occurred during that year.^[39] Global temperature is subject to short-term fluctuations that overlay long term trends and can temporarily mask them. The relative stability in temperature from 2002 to 2009 is consistent with such an episode.^[40][41] 2010 was also an El Niño year. On the low swing of the oscillation, 2011 as an La Niña year was cooler but it was still the 11th warmest year since records began in 1880. Of the 13 warmest years since 1880, 11 were the years from 2001 to 2011. Over the more recent record, 2011 was the warmest La Niña year in the period from 1950 to 2011, and was close to 1997 which was not at the lowest point of the cycle.^[42]

Temperature changes vary over the globe. Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures (0.25 °C per decade against 0.13 °C per decade).^[43] Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean loses more heat by evaporation.^[44] The northern hemisphere warms faster than the southern hemisphere because it has more land and because it has extensive areas of seasonal snow and sea-ice cover subject to ice-albedo feedback. Although more greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than Southern Hemisphere this does not contribute to the difference in warming because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between hemispheres.^[45]

The thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that climate can take centuries or longer to adjust to changes in forcing. Climate commitment studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at 2000 levels, a further warming of about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) would still occur

Initial causes of temperature changes (external forcings)

The climate system can respond to changes in external forcings.^[47][48] External forcings can "push" the climate in the direction of warming or cooling.^[49] Examples of external forcings include changes in atmospheric composition (e.g., increased concentrations of greenhouse gases), solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun.^[50] Orbital cycles vary slowly over tens of thousands of years and at present are in an overall cooling trend which would be expected to lead towards an ice age, but the 20th century instrumental temperature record shows a sudden rise in global temperatures

Greenhouse gases

The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896

Naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C (59 °F).^[54][C] The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36–70% of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide(CO₂), which causes 9–26%; methane (CH₄), which causes 4–9%; and ozone (O₃), which causes 3–7%.^[55][56][57] Clouds also affect the radiation balance through cloud forcings similar to greenhouse gases.

Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO₂, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide. The concentrations of CO₂ and methane have increased by 36% and 148% respectively since 1750.^[58]These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 800,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores.^{[59][60][61][62]} Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO₂ values higher than this were last seen about 20 million years ago.^[63] Fossil fuel burning has produced about three-quarters of the increase in CO₂ from human activity over the past 20 years. The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land-use, particularly deforestation.^[64]

Over the last three decades of the 20th century, gross domestic product per capita and population growth were the main drivers of increases in greenhouse gas emissions.^[65] CO₂ emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change.^[66][67]:71 Emissions can be attributed to different regions, e.g., see the figure opposite. Attribution of emissions due to land-use change is a controversial issue.^[68][69]:289

Emissions scenarios, estimates of changes in future emission levels of greenhouse gases, have been projected that depend upon uncertain economic, sociological, technological, and natural developments.^[70] In most scenarios, emissions continue to rise over the century, while in a few, emissions are reduced.^[71][72] Fossil fuel reserves are abundant, and will not limit carbon emissions in the 21st century.^[73] Emission scenarios, combined with modelling of the carbon cycle, have been used to produce estimates of how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases might change in the future. Using the six IPCC SRES "marker" scenarios, models suggest that by the year 2100, the atmospheric concentration of CO₂ could range between 541 and 970 ppm.^[74] This is an increase of 90–250% above the concentration in the year 1750.

The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with ozone depletion, i.e., the destruction ofstratospheric ozone by chlorofluorocarbons.^[75][76] Although there are a few areas of linkage, the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures, while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger 

Particulates and soot

Global dimming, a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface, was observed from 1961 until at least 1990.^[78] The main cause of this dimming is particulates produced by volcanoes and human made pollutants, which exerts a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion – CO₂ and aerosols – have largely offset one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been due to the increase in non-CO₂ greenhouse gases such as methane.^[79] Radiative forcing due to particulates is temporally limited due to wet deposition which causes them to have an atmospheric lifetime of one week. Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more, and as such, changes in particulate concentrations will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide.^[80]

In addition to their direct effect by scattering and absorbing solar radiation, particulates have indirect effects on the radiation budget.^[81] Sulfates act ascloud condensation nuclei and thus lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets, known as the Twomey effect.^[82] This effect also causes droplets to be of more uniform size, which reducesgrowth of raindrops and makes the cloud more reflective to incoming sunlight, known as the Albrecht effect.^[83] Indirect effects are most noticeable in marine stratiform clouds, and have very little radiative effect on convective clouds. Indirect effects of particulates represent the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.^[84]

Soot may cool or warm the surface, depending on whether it is airborne or deposited. Atmospheric soot directly absorb solar radiation, which heats the atmosphere and cools the surface. In isolated areas with high soot production, such as rural India, as much as 50% of surface warming due to greenhouse gases may be masked by atmospheric brown clouds.^[85] When deposited, especially on glaciers or on ice in arctic regions, the lower surface albedo can also directly heat the surface.^[86] The influences of particulates, including black carbon, are most pronounced in the tropics and sub-tropics, particularly in Asia, while the effects of greenhouse gases are dominant in the extratropics and southern hemisphere

Solar activity

Main articles: Solar variation and Solar wind

Since 1978, output from the Sun has been precisely measured by satellites.^[90] These measurements indicate that the Sun's output has not increased since 1978, so the warming during the past 30 years cannot be attributed to an increase in solar energy reaching the Earth. In the three decades since 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity probably had a slight cooling influence on the climate.^[91]

Climate models have been used to examine the role of the sun in recent climate change.^[92] Models are unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when they only take into account variations in solar output and volcanic activity. Models are, however, able to simulate the observed 20th century changes in temperature when they include all of the most important external forcings, including human influences and natural forcings.

Another line of evidence against the sun having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed.^[93] Models and observations show that greenhouse warming results in warming of the lower atmosphere (called thetroposphere) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the stratosphere).^[94][95] Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants has also resulted in a strong cooling effect in the stratosphere. If the sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of both the troposphere and stratosphere would be expected.

Observed and expected environmental effects

Main article: Effects of global warming

"Detection" is the process of demonstrating that climate has changed in some defined statistical sense, without providing a reason for that change. Detection does not imply attribution of the detected change to a particular cause. "Attribution" of causes of climate change is the process of establishing the most likely causes for the detected change with some defined level of confidence.^[119] Detection and attribution may also be applied to observed changes in physical, ecological and social systems.^[120]

Natural systems

Main article: Physical impacts of climate change

Global warming has been detected in a number of natural systems. Some of these changes are described in the section on observed temperature changes, e.g., sea level rise and widespread decreases in snow and ice extent.^[121] Most of the increase in global average temperature since the mid-20th century is, with high probability,^[D] attributable to human-induced changes in greenhouse gas concentrations.^[122]

Even with policies to reduce emissions, global emissions are still expected to continue to grow over time.^[123]

In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, across a range of future emission scenarios, model-based estimates of sea level rise for the 21st century^[124] range from 0.18 to 0.59 m. These estimates, however, were not given a likelihood due to a lack of scientific understanding, nor was an upper bound given for sea level rise. On the timescale of centuries to millennia, the melting of ice sheets could result in even higher sea level rise. Partial deglaciation of the Greenland ice sheet, and possibly the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, could contribute 4–6 metres (13 to 20 ft) or more to sea level rise.^[125]

Changes in regional climate are expected to include greater warming over land, with most warming at high northern latitudes, and least warming over the Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean.^[123] Snow cover area and sea ice extent are expected to decrease, with the Arctic expected to be largely ice-free in September by 2037.^[126]

It is calculated that, with high statistical confidence, certain weather events, such as the heat waves in Texas and the 2003 European heat wave, would not have occurred without global warming. Extremely hot outliers, defined as three standard deviations from climatology records, now cover about 10% of the land surface and, under present trends, would be the norm by 2050. These temperatures are expected to exacerbate the hydrological cycle, with more intense droughts and floods.^[127] The effect on hurricane activity is less certain.^[128]

Ecological systems

Main article: Climate change and ecosystems

In terrestrial ecosystems, the earlier timing of spring events, and poleward and upward shifts in plant and animal ranges, have been linked with high confidence to recent warming.^[121] Future climate change is expected to particularly affect certain ecosystems, including tundra, mangroves, and coral reefs.^[123] It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO₂ levels, combined with higher global temperatures.^[129] Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems.^[130]

Dissolved CO₂ increases ocean acidity. This process is known as ocean acidification and has been called the "equally evil twin" of global climate change.^[131] Increased ocean acidity decreases the amount of carbonate ions, which organisms at the base of the marine food chain, such as foraminifera, use to make structures they need to survive. The current rate of ocean acidification^[132]is many times faster than at least the past 300 million years, which included four mass extinctions that involved rising ocean acidity, such as the Permian mass extinction, which killed 95% of marine species. By the end of the century, acidity changes since the industrial revolution would match the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, which occurred over 5000 years and killed 35–50% of benthic foraminifera.^[133]

Large-scale and abrupt impacts

Climate change could result in global, large-scale changes in natural and social systems.^[134] Two examples are ocean acidification caused by increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and the long-term melting of ice sheets, which contributes to sea level rise.^[135]

Some large-scale changes could occur abruptly, i.e., over a short time period, and might also be irreversible. An example of abrupt climate change is the rapid release of methane from permafrost, which would lead to amplified global warming.^[136] Scientific understanding of abrupt climate change is generally poor.^[137] However, the probability of abrupt changes appears to be very low.^[138][136] Factors that may increase the probability of abrupt climate change include higher magnitudes of global warming, warming that occurs more rapidly, and warming that is sustained over longer time periods.^[138]

Observed and expected effects on social systems

Further information: Effects of global warming#Social systems and Regional effects of global warming#Regional impacts

Vulnerability of human societies to climate change mainly lies in the effects of extreme-weather events rather than gradual climate change.^[139] Impacts of climate change so far include adverse effects on small islands,^[140] adverse effects on indigenous populations in high-latitude areas,^[141] and small but discernable effects on human health.^[142] Over the 21st century, climate change is likely to adversely affect hundreds of millions of people through increased coastal flooding, reductions in water supplies, increased malnutrition and increased health impacts.^[143] Most economic studies suggest losses of world gross domestic product (GDP) for this^{[clarification needed]} magnitude of warming.^[144][145]

Food security

See also: Climate change and agriculture

Under present trends, by 2030, maize production in Southern Africa could decrease by up to 30% while rice, millet and maize in South Asia could decrease by up to 10%.^[146] By 2080, yields indeveloping countries could decrease by 10% to 25% on average while India could see a drop of 30% to 40%.^[147] By 2100, while the population of three billion is expected to double, rice and maize yields in the tropics are expected to decrease by 20–40% because of higher temperatures without accounting for the decrease in yields as a result of soil moisture and water supplies stressed by rising temperatures.^[13]

Future warming of around 3 °C (by 2100, relative to 1990–2000) could result in increased crop yields in mid- and high-latitude areas, but in low-latitude areas, yields could decline, increasing the risk of malnutrition.^[140] A similar regional pattern of net benefits and costs could occur for economic (market-sector) effects.^[142] Warming above 3 °C could result in crop yields falling in temperate regions, leading to a reduction in global food production.^[148]

Habitat inundation

In small islands and megadeltas, inundation as a result of sea level rise is expected to threaten vital infrastructure and human settlements.^[149][150] This could lead to issues of statelessness for populations in countries such as the Maldives and Tuvalu^[151] and homelessness in countries with low lying areas such as Bangladesh.

Responses to global warming

Mitigation

Reducing the amount of future climate change is called mitigation of climate change. The IPCC defines mitigation as activities that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, or enhance the capacity of carbon sinks to absorb GHGs from the atmosphere.^[152] Many countries, both developing and developed, are aiming to use cleaner, less polluting, technologies.^{[67]:192[153]} Use of these technologies aids mitigation and could result in substantial reductions in CO₂ emissions. Policies include targets for emissions reductions, increasedrenewable energy commercialisation, energy conservation, and increased energy efficiency. Studies indicate substantial potential for future reductions in emissions.^[154]

In order to limit warming to within the lower range described in the IPCC's "Summary Report for Policymakers"^[155] it will be necessary to adopt policies that will limit greenhouse gas emissions to one of several significantly different scenarios described in the full report.^[156] This will become more and more difficult with each year of increasing volumes of emissions and even more drastic measures will be required in later years to stabilize a desired atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases. Energy-related carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions in 2010 were the highest in history, breaking the prior record set in 2008.^[157]

Adaptation

Main article: Adaptation to global warming

Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change. Adaptation to climate change may be planned, either in reaction to or anticipation of climate change, or spontaneous, i.e., without government intervention.^[158] Planned adaptation is already occurring on a limited basis.^[154] The barriers, limits, and costs of future adaptation are not fully understood.^[154]

A concept related to adaptation is "adaptive capacity," which is the ability of a system (human, natural or managed) to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with consequences.^[159] Unmitigated climate change (i.e., future climate change without efforts to limit greenhouse gas emissions) would, in the long term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural, managed and human systems to adapt.^[160]

Views on global warming

See also: Scientific opinion on climate change

There are different views over what the appropriate policy response to climate change should be.^[161] These competing views weigh the benefits of limiting emissions of greenhouse gases against the costs. In general, it seems likely that climate change will impose greater damages and risks in poorer regions.^[162]